Roe V. Wade Summary

Roe v. Wade, 410 U. S. 113 (1973) Facts: Texas had passed a law that made it illegal for women who were expecting to have an abortion, unless, pursuant to medical advice, given to save the life of the mother. Jane Roe was an unmarried, pregnant woman. She was unable to get a lawful abortion in Texas because her life was not endangered by going through with her pregnancy. A law existed in Georgia at that time also and was heard as a case relating to it. Issue:Whether or not a pregnant woman has a constitutional right to terminate the pregnancy of her baby by means of abortion. The issue also involves whether or not it is in the state of Texas interests to preserve the life of the child and or mother, as well to establish under what conditions a medical abortion is allowed. Decision and Reasoning: The Roe v. Wade decision stated that a woman, with her doctor, could choose abortion in earlier months of pregnancy, and with restrictions in later months, based on the right to privacy.Roe v . Wade was decided primarily due to the Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution. The Court's decision in this case was that the Ninth Amendment protected a woman’s (person’s) right to privacy. Critical Analysis The Supreme Court case I have discussed above of 1973 is one I believe may be overturned in the future. Although it has relevance to the ninth amendment as I have previous stated, there are a lot of people today that seem to disagree with the court’s decision.After reading this case brief I still hold my opinion of being, â€Å"pro-choice. † Having not made abortion completely illegal, while setting restrictions on it, was a smart thing to do, taken into effect the setting of this case. The Supreme Court not only compared its decision to the ninth amendment but also to the case related to it from Georgia. The decision of the case I have discussed held to be an appropriate one setting limitations on abortion will still allowing it for unde r the stipulations set forth by the Supreme Court.

Night by Elie Wiesel

Cattle cars. Burning bodies. Auschwitz. These words are engraved in the mind of every Jewish person on Earth. After decades, Holocaust survivors still have nightmares about these thoughts. One word, one indescribable word, will forever stay with these people. Holocaust. Many people of the Jewish faith realize the power of that word, but many others still need to learn. A man is sitting peacefully in his home; he has no worries, even when Nazi soldiers dragged him into the horrendous ghettos. He also willfully went into cattle cars, and then finally into Auschwitz. This is where that man realized that his life became horrible.Throughout the months in the work camp, throughout all of the suffering, his will to survive surpassed the will to kill of Nazi soldiers. Years later, people know that events like the Holocaust will, and are happening right now, such as the Bosnian Genocide 1992. Education also will get rid of the desire for power in human beings. Educating students about the Hol ocaust, and other genocides, will help prevent genocides in future generations. Man has the will to survive and surpass evil like the Holocaust survivors, genocides like this will happen again, and education will help prevent genocides in the future.In the face of evil man can surpass the death that evil brings upon it. In the book Night by Elie Wiesel, he describes the event of selection which occurs every two weeks. Never shall I forget that night, the first night in camp, which has turned my life into one long night, seven times cursed and seven times sealed. Never shall I forget that smoke. Never shall I forget the little faces of the children, whose bodies I saw turned into wreaths of smoke beneath a silent blue sky. (Elie Wiesel) This quote symbolizes Elie’s first selection in Auschwitz.As he and his father follow the lines to the selection process, they walk by flames consuming live babies. This part in the book made me wince because just the thought of babies being bu rned can make even the toughest person get to the brink of tears. Once at the entrance to Auschwitz he faces a guard who asks questions about him. He passes the first selection and so does his father, but sadly this is the place where he leaves his mother and little sister, Tzipora, forever. After many years, Elie realizes that they were probably taken to the crematoriums right away. fter living in the concentration camps for a while they go through their next selection process. Every time the selection process comes around Elie and his father escape with their lives, while others aren’t as lucky and get sent to the crematoriums. Every time they were capable of working and they were healthy so he and his father were let off. Every time they passed the selection, they surpassed evil because of the Nazi soldiers. These Nazi soldiers wanted reason to kill people, and sometimes they did it without reason.They surpassed the death evil brought upon them by having the will to get th rough the selection process, and they knew that as long as they had each other each would have the will to survive and live another day. People believe the lie that events like the Holocaust will not happen again. This is a lie because genocides have occurred in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Rwanda, Cambodia, and others. In all of these genocides one race had the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group.In the genocide in Bosnia and Herzegovina the Serbs led a genocide against the Muslims in Bosnia. 200,000 Muslims were systematically murdered in this genocide. Beginning on April 6, 1994 the Hutu militia led a genocide against the Tutsis and the means of killing were clubs and machetes. As many as 10,000 civilians were murdered a day. In the one hundred day genocide 800,000 people were murdered. In Cambodia the leader of Pol Pot, Khmer Rouge attempted to make a communist peasant farming society, and in the process killed 25% of the population o f Cambodia by means of overworking, starvation, and executions.As you can see there have been many genocides over the years after the Holocaust, but these were the most devastating and brutal. Education will help our students learn the horrors of the Holocaust, and will hopefully prevent genocides like it from future generations. By showing our students the atrocities of the Holocaust all of them will say that something like this could never happen again, and if it did how would the world let it happen. There are many things taught in schools, colleges, and even classes for older people out of school to help them learn about the Holocaust and how to prevent genocides like it in the future.These efforts assume that learning about genocides will prevent its recurrence. However there are still genocides happening, like the ones I described in the paragraph above, so something about genocide education is wrong. There is a disjuncture about what people are teaching, and what is actually happening. In my opinion we need to do a better job teaching about the prevention of genocides. Doing this will hopefully make a big impact on the future, so nothing like the genocides in Rwanda and Bosnia ever happen again.As you can see if man can survive the evil wrath, and surpass death with their will to survive, and even after educated people on the Holocaust, genocides like it have happened again and again. The holocaust has taught me a lot about the world around me, and from it I also learned that I should appreciate everything that I have because it can all be taken away in a second like the Jewish race. It also helped me learn about other holocausts and what we need to do to prevent it. We need to ask ourselves this question, if genocides are happening after the Holocaust, what are we supposed to do to prevent them? Night by Elie Wiesel Elie Wiesel’s famous book, Night, was written as a memoir from his experience as a Jewish victim of the holocaust.   Written in the 1950’s, it serves as one of the best and most accurate resources on the holocaust, as well as being one of the few literary memoirs ever written on the subject.   As a young teenager, Wiesel struggles with his devout religious nature and the godless and destitute place he has just left and somehow survived.   On top of his own personal struggles, he is forced into a concentration camp, along with his father.   His struggle is recounted, and his life within Auschwitz and beyond is documented.The main character, Eliezer, is much more than just a character-he is also the narrative, telling his story and his direct experiences in the Nazi concentration camps.   (The main character, Eliezer, is not to be confused with the author, Elie.   Eliezer was an alter-ego made up by Elie in order to disassociate slightly with the tremendous ha rdships his character faces.)   I have only read a handful of book on the Holocaust, but this book proved to be particularly chilling, as the main character describes his experience incredibly intimately.You literally experience it alongside of him.   However, it is interesting that he not only described the physical events that he went through, but also the emotional and spiritual journeys he embarked upon.   His fundamental beliefs are suddenly called into question, bringing a much needed side of humanity to historical depictions of the Holocaust.One of the strongest themes throughout the novel is that of seeking and making peace with God.   Wiesel begins the story by speaking about his Jewish studies and his lengthy prayer rituals.   He describes how the Nazis have obliterated and destroyed the synagogue which he attends.   Towards the end of the book, any mention of Jewish observance has disappeared.   When his father passes, Wiesel states, â€Å"â€Å"[t]here we re no prayers at his grave. No candles were lit in his memory.†Ã‚   This gives implication to the fact that throughout Wiesel’s ordeal within the concentration camps, he has left his faith in God, or at the very least has lost the need for spiritual renewal through prayer and ritual.Wiesel struggles throughout the entire book with his faith in God.   Towards the beginning of the book, the author states, â€Å"â€Å"Why did I pray? . . . Why did I live? Why did I breathe?† when asked why he prays to his God.   This shows that his faith in God is much like God’s love for him-unconditional.   In addition, Wiesel struggles with the main teachings of Jewish mysticism.   For example, his faith is based around the basic belief that God is everywhere, God is a good and divine being, and since God is everywhere in the world, the world must therefore also be good.   His experiences tell him otherwise.As stated above, his faith changes and shifts significa ntly throughout his experience within the concentration camps.   However, throughout the middle of the book, Wiesel maintains that he is struggling with his faith, a significant and important distinction rather than abandoning his faith.   Almost all Christian faiths teach that not only is questioning one’s faith acceptable, it is encouraged.   After all, how can one have faith without doubting first?   At one point, Moshe the Beadle is quizzed on his reasoning behind prayer.He answers, â€Å"â€Å"I pray to the God within me that He will give me the strength to ask Him the right questions.†Ã‚   This is a perfect example of questioning faith in God.   However, throughout Wiesel’s experience during the Holocaust, he does much more than simply questioning his faith.   He must confront basic ideas of good and evil, and ultimately whether there is a God that exists that would allow such atrocities to be committed by humans to other humans.Ironically, at the end of the book, Wiesel states that his faith has been completely dissolved and destroyed.   However, he also states at the same time that he will never forget the things that he has experienced even if he â€Å"live[s] as long as God Himself.†Ã‚   He has just before completely denied any existence or presence of God, yet he is still only struggling with his faith in God-a major, recurring theme throughout the book.   However, Wiesel’s situation is also quite complex.   His heritage IS his religion.He is both Jewish in ancestry, as well as Jewish in religion.   How can your religion and mind escape your body?   It would be hard enough to abandon a religion you have grown up with, but this religion in particular is literally all-consuming.   It would be near-impossible for him to deny any existence of God because of this.Throughout the Holocaust museum, signs are posted with slogans such as â€Å"Never forget†-an anthem that was often used (and i s still used today) after September 11th, 2001.   However, Wiesel actually personalizes this â€Å"never forget† slogan when he eloquently states, â€Å"Never shall I forget that night, the first night in camp, which has turned my life into one long night, seven times cursed and seven times sealed†¦Never shall I forget those moments which murdered my God and my soul and turned my dreams to dust.Never shall I forget these things, even if I am condemned to live as long as God Himself. Never.†Ã‚   This is one of the first times that the author is able to reflect upon and to take in what is happening around him.   This is also an ironic allusion to Psalm 150, where each line starts with, â€Å"Hallelujah† or â€Å"Praise God.† The author inverts these phrases, beginning each line with â€Å"never.†Ã‚   Psalm 150 is obviously a Psalm of praise.   The passage in Night calls into question the very existence of God, or at the least Wieselâ€℠¢s basis of faith in a God.One of the most obvious symbols, yet also the most complex symbol appearing throughout the book is the night itself.   Night and darkness is a symbol for the absolute worst in humanity, as well as an allusion to the creation of the earth.   God’s first act was to create light; therefore, this was God’s first actual presence on earth.   God’s seeming abandonment of His people is metaphorical within the idea of night.   In other words, Eliezer believe that he is living in a world without God.Most critics agree that Wiesel’s Night is one of the few pieces of literature that absolutely must be read by every person in the world.   Included in this is Thane Rosenbaum, law professor and reviewer for the New York Times.   She states, â€Å"This collection is a noble literary achievement.†Ã‚   She goes on later to say, â€Å"And on top of all of these mysteries and contradictions is the greatest of them all,† re ferring to the excellent style in which the author both engages the reader in an intimate conversation while still allowing the reader to imagine the painful experiences Wiesel must have experienced.Critic Itzhak Ivry had the same positive opinion of the book.   Ivry indirectly says that of course the subject Wiesel wrote on would be interesting, thought provoking, and emotional.   However, Wisel’s style of writing is praised, as Ivry states, â€Å"Mr. Wiesel writes in short, staccato sentences, in the simplest words, and in a relentless, self-denying effort to tell the whole truth as he saw and felt it, moment by moment, day by day.†Ã‚   Ivry discusses in detail Wiesel’s gradual disillusionment with God.Ivry also discusses and alludes to the Hall of Shoes lining the Holocaust Museum in Washington, D.C.   There is a room filled with hundred and hundreds of shoes in every imaginable shape and size.   Many are still covered in dust, dirt, and ash.   Ivry alludes to this when saying, â€Å"Children’s shoes are a touching sight when piled up in a concentration camp storehouse, and a child’s reaction to the twentieth century’s greatest calamity is especially poignant.†One of the most difficult parts of reading this book is its intense resemblance of the current crisis in Darfur.   It is almost as if the book itself were echoing and simultaneously foreshadowing the voices of the lost children in the Darfur region of the Sudan.   One of the main points of the book is that all citizens of humanity are able to commit atrocities just like these, and the rest of humanity must keep one another in check, lest something happens just like the holocaust.   Unfortunately, genocide is taking place just a continent away.   It seems as though Wiesel wrote Night specifically for the purpose of encouraging us to â€Å"step up to the plate,† to make up for our lack of response during the Holocaust.Night proved to be an extremely difficult book to read.   Elie Wiesel is a fantastic author, and he truly captures the reader’s attention by not only telling his story, but also by showing how easily this happened, and how easy it would be for it to happen all over again.   Wiesel manages to bring about an aspect of humanity not apparent in other historical memoirs-and the critics obviously agree.   However, it is a book that I truly believe should be read by everyone, as it has incredibly valuable lessons to teach about faith and humanity.ReferencesIvry, Itzhak. â€Å"Memory of Torment.† Rev. of Night, by Elie Wiesel. Saturday Review 17 Dec. 1960.Rosenbaum, Thane. â€Å"Revealing, Concealing.† Rev. of Night, by Elie Wiesel. Los Angeles Times 22 Apr. 2007.Wiesel, Elie. Night. 3rd ed. New York: Bantam, 1982. Night by Elie Wiesel NIGHT ESSAY In the beginning of Night, written by Nobel Peace Prize winner Elie Wiesel, Wiesel has been in the concentration camps suffering changes in his life, physically, mentally, and spiritually. In the beginning of Night, Wiesel’s identity is an innocent child and a devouted Jew. He was a happy child with a desire to study the Talmud, until his experience in Auschwitz, in which he changed his mental ways. First of all, he used to believe that all people were nice and that human were not capable of hurting another human being.He later changed his mind after the way he saw the Hungarian police destroyed there own kind, human beings, and he no longer thought that way, â€Å"†Faster! Faster! Move, you lazy good-for-nothings! † the Hungarian police were screaming. That was when I began to hate them, and my hatred remains our only link today. They were our first oppressors. They were the first faces of hell and death (page 19). † The Hungarian police see the Jews as animals, a little insignificant animal they can devour.Another belief he used to have was that God should always be prayed and respected. He later told himself, â€Å"For the first time, I felt revolt rise up in me. Why should I bless His name? The Eternal, Lord of the Universe, the All-Powerful and Terrible, was silent. What had I to thank Him for† (Page 31)? † He felt like if God wasn’t doing anything to help these innocent human beings that practically praise him to save them all, when in reality, everyone is getting burned, abused, and getting shot.One of the thing the thought to have existed was the his opinion of the Hungarian police. In the beginning when the SS came to siget, the Jewish didn’t worry they welcomed them and they kept their space from them, he and the Jewish thought that they were not going to send them to those concentration camps Moishe the Beadle had told them about. all of the sudden everything changed, â€Å"From that m oment on, everything happened very quickly. The race toward death had begun. First edict: Jews were prohibited from leaving their residences for three days, under penalty of death.The same day, the Hungarian police burst into every Jewish home in town: a Jew was henceforth forbidden to own gold, jewelry, or any valuables. Everything had to be handed over to the authorities, under penalty of death. Three days later, a new decree: every Jew had to wear the yellow star (Page 72). † He had many changes in his life, physically, mentally, and spiritually. although, what changed him the most was how he had changed mentally because thats the way life is reflecting his attutude towards other people, things, and thoughts Night by Elie Wiesel Elie Wiesel’s famous book, Night, was written as a memoir from his experience as a Jewish victim of the holocaust.   Written in the 1950’s, it serves as one of the best and most accurate resources on the holocaust, as well as being one of the few literary memoirs ever written on the subject.   As a young teenager, Wiesel struggles with his devout religious nature and the godless and destitute place he has just left and somehow survived.   On top of his own personal struggles, he is forced into a concentration camp, along with his father.   His struggle is recounted, and his life within Auschwitz and beyond is documented.The main character, Eliezer, is much more than just a character-he is also the narrative, telling his story and his direct experiences in the Nazi concentration camps.   (The main character, Eliezer, is not to be confused with the author, Elie.   Eliezer was an alter-ego made up by Elie in order to disassociate slightly with the tremendous ha rdships his character faces.)   I have only read a handful of book on the Holocaust, but this book proved to be particularly chilling, as the main character describes his experience incredibly intimately.   You literally experience it alongside of him.   However, it is interesting that he not only described the physical events that he went through, but also the emotional and spiritual journeys he embarked upon.   His fundamental beliefs are suddenly called into question, bringing a much needed side of humanity to historical depictions of the Holocaust.One of the strongest themes throughout the novel is that of seeking and making peace with God.   Wiesel begins the story by speaking about his Jewish studies and his lengthy prayer rituals.   He describes how the Nazis have obliterated and destroyed the synagogue which he attends.   Towards the end of the book, any mention of Jewish observance has disappeared.   When his father passes, Wiesel states, â€Å"â€Å"[t]he re were no prayers at his grave. No candles were lit in his memory.†Ã‚   This gives implication to the fact that throughout Wiesel’s ordeal within the concentration camps, he has left his faith in God, or at the very least has lost the need for spiritual renewal through prayer and ritual.Wiesel struggles throughout the entire book with his faith in God.   Towards the beginning of the book, the author states, â€Å"â€Å"Why did I pray? . . . Why did I live? Why did I breathe?† when asked why he prays to his God.   This shows that his faith in God is much like God’s love for him-unconditional.   In addition, Wiesel struggles with the main teachings of Jewish mysticism.   For example, his faith is based around the basic belief that God is everywhere, God is a good and divine being, and since God is everywhere in the world, the world must therefore also be good.   His experiences tell him otherwise.As stated above, his faith changes and shifts sign ificantly throughout his experience within the concentration camps.   However, throughout the middle of the book, Wiesel maintains that he is struggling with his faith, a significant and important distinction rather than abandoning his faith.   Almost all Christian faiths teach that not only is questioning one’s faith acceptable, it is encouraged.   After all, how can one have faith without doubting first?   At one point, Moshe the Beadle is quizzed on his reasoning behind prayer.He answers, â€Å"â€Å"I pray to the God within me that He will give me the strength to ask Him the right questions.†Ã‚   This is a perfect example of questioning faith in God.   However, throughout Wiesel’s experience during the Holocaust, he does much more than simply questioning his faith.   He must confront basic ideas of good and evil, and ultimately whether there is a God that exists that would allow such atrocities to be committed by humans to other humans.Ironicall y, at the end of the book, Wiesel states that his faith has been completely dissolved and destroyed.   However, he also states at the same time that he will never forget the things that he has experienced even if he â€Å"live[s] as long as God Himself.†Ã‚   He has just before completely denied any existence or presence of God, yet he is still only struggling with his faith in God-a major, recurring theme throughout the book.   However, Wiesel’s situation is also quite complex.   His heritage IS his religion.   He is both Jewish in ancestry, as well as Jewish in religion.   How can your religion and mind escape your body?   It would be hard enough to abandon a religion you have grown up with, but this religion in particular is literally all-consuming.   It would be near-impossible for him to deny any existence of God because of this.Throughout the Holocaust museum, signs are posted with slogans such as â€Å"Never forget†-an anthem that was often u sed (and is still used today) after September 11th, 2001.   However, Wiesel actually personalizes this â€Å"never forget† slogan when he eloquently states, â€Å"Never shall I forget that night, the first night in camp, which has turned my life into one long night, seven times cursed and seven times sealed†¦Never shall I forget those moments which murdered my God and my soul and turned my dreams to dust. Never shall I forget these things, even if I am condemned to live as long as God Himself. Never.†This is one of the first times that the author is able to reflect upon and to take in what is happening around him.   This is also an ironic allusion to Psalm 150, where each line starts with, â€Å"Hallelujah† or â€Å"Praise God.† The author inverts these phrases, beginning each line with â€Å"never.†Ã‚   Psalm 150 is obviously a Psalm of praise.   The passage in Night calls into question the very existence of God, or at the least Wieselà ¢â‚¬â„¢s basis of faith in a God.One of the most obvious symbols, yet also the most complex symbol appearing throughout the book is the night itself.   Night and darkness is a symbol for the absolute worst in humanity, as well as an allusion to the creation of the earth.   God’s first act was to create light; therefore, this was God’s first actual presence on earth.   God’s seeming abandonment of His people is metaphorical within the idea of night.   In other words, Eliezer believe that he is living in a world without God.Most critics agree that Wiesel’s Night is one of the few pieces of literature that absolutely must be read by every person in the world.   Included in this is Thane Rosenbaum, law professor and reviewer for the New York Times.   She states, â€Å"This collection is a noble literary achievement.†Ã‚   She goes on later to say, â€Å"And on top of all of these mysteries and contradictions is the greatest of them all,â₠¬  referring to the excellent style in which the author both engages the reader in an intimate conversation while still allowing the reader to imagine the painful experiences Wiesel must have experienced.Critic Itzhak Ivry had the same positive opinion of the book.   Ivry indirectly says that of course the subject Wiesel wrote on would be interesting, thought provoking, and emotional.   However, Wisel’s style of writing is praised, as Ivry states, â€Å"Mr. Wiesel writes in short, staccato sentences, in the simplest words, and in a relentless, self-denying effort to tell the whole truth as he saw and felt it, moment by moment, day by day.†Ã‚   Ivry discusses in detail Wiesel’s gradual disillusionment with God.Ivry also discusses and alludes to the Hall of Shoes lining the Holocaust Museum in Washington, D.C.   There is a room filled with hundred and hundreds of shoes in every imaginable shape and size.   Many are still covered in dust, dirt, and ash.   Ivry alludes to this when saying, â€Å"Children’s shoes are a touching sight when piled up in a concentration camp storehouse, and a child’s reaction to the twentieth century’s greatest calamity is especially poignant.†One of the most difficult parts of reading this book is its intense resemblance of the current crisis in Darfur.   It is almost as if the book itself were echoing and simultaneously foreshadowing the voices of the lost children in the Darfur region of the Sudan.   One of the main points of the book is that all citizens of humanity are able to commit atrocities just like these, and the rest of humanity must keep one another in check, lest something happens just like the holocaust.   Unfortunately, genocide is taking place just a continent away.   It seems as though Wiesel wrote Night specifically for the purpose of encouraging us to â€Å"step up to the plate,† to make up for our lack of response during the Holocaust.Night proved to be an extremely difficult book to read.   Elie Wiesel is a fantastic author, and he truly captures the reader’s attention by not only telling his story, but also by showing how easily this happened, and how easy it would be for it to happen all over again.   Wiesel manages to bring about an aspect of humanity not apparent in other historical memoirs-and the critics obviously agree.   However, it is a book that I truly believe should be read by everyone, as it has incredibly valuable lessons to teach about faith and humanity.ReferencesIvry, Itzhak. â€Å"Memory of Torment.† Rev. of Night, by Elie Wiesel. Saturday Review 17 Dec. 1960.Rosenbaum, Thane. â€Å"Revealing, Concealing.† Rev. of Night, by Elie Wiesel. Los Angeles Times 22 Apr. 2007.Wiesel, Elie. Night. 3rd ed. New York: Bantam, 1982.

‘In Flanders Fields’, ‘Break of day in the trenches’ and ‘Dulce et decorum est’ Essay

In my opinion I think that the poems, ‘In Flanders Fields’, ‘Break of day in the trenches’ and ‘Dulce et decorum est’ do teach the modern reader a variety of different things, therefore to say: â€Å"the modern reader learns little from them† is an inaccurate conclusion to draw. I think the modern reader can learn a sufficient amount from the three poems because of the clear themes that run through them. In the poem; in Flanders fields written by John McRae, it is obvious to the reader that this poet was a patriot and that he felt that the duty of the living soldiers was to honour the deed by continuing to fight on it the Great War. This poem portrays the similar attitudes of many soldiers who fought as it reflects how important it was for them to give and sacrifice their lives for the victory of their country. As a reader, you can learn the significance of the poppy; the red colour symbolising blood and death, the natural world taking its course by allowing the poppies to grow on the dead to show its natural beauty and how death is part of a cycle and also how the natural world still exists in the chaos and destruction of war which can also be linked with the Rat in ‘break of day in the trenches’. The reader can also gain an insight into the a soldiers thoughts and feelings which can justify why they felt as if they had no option but to win and honour the dead who have already sacrificed their lives for the victory of their country. Break of day in the trenches is a great way for a 21st century reader to understand and remotely feel the suffering that took place daily for men during the First World War in the popularly talked about trenches. It teaches us the futileness of the war and the similarities and common humanities that were shared between the English and German soldiers. This is poignantly represented by a ‘queer sardonic rat’ in the poem written by Isaac Rosenberg. The rat that is mentioned highlights the importance of the freedom that these men lacked but the rat; an unwanted, diseased carrying animal that is most commonly seen as vermin had. He has the opportunity to walk around freely and do as he pleases whereas the man in a trench can only stay where he is positioned. Ironically, the rat can ‘cross the sleeping green between’ to have a better chance of survival than the men, who are ‘less chanced than you for life’. This idea is sharply perceptive. The reader can get a sense of the real trench life and how devastating the destruction was to their lives and the appalling conditions they had to bear with. The powerful line of ‘the darkness crumbles away’ suggests how close they were to the earth as it was as basic as a hole in the ground. Lastly, the poem ‘Dulce et Decorum est’ written by Wilfred Owen allows the modern reader to divulge into the world of a soldier who has to witness shocking and harrowing scenes of death and destruction day in day out. The poet gives the reader just a snippet of a typical gas attack and how they cope and deal with such a horrific situation. The reader can feel the pain and emotion that he is feeling as a poor soldier is caught in this form of attack. The lines; ‘Bent double, like old beggars under sacks†¦ coughing like hags’ shows the audience that men who are meant to be fit, healthy and able are in fact aged by the stresses and strains of these conditions and how their physical and mental states are deteriorating. The imagery and the descriptions of the gas attack in this poem are vivid which helps the reader to put in into context and can help them to visualize what is happening (‘I saw him drowning’) The speech that is used is effective because a reader can imagine the panic in their voices and how terrified they must be. Not only does the reader gain an insight into the troubles of the soldiers but the attitudes that many soldiers, poets, women and children had. The title translates as; it is a sweet and fitting thing to die for one’s country however this is very ironic as the poem suggests that it is a complete contrast. This line represents the attitudes of some people who expect the war to be a wonderful, romantic and honourable deed when in reality it causes pain. The reader can see that children were ‘ardent eyed for some desperate glory’ and they believed it was an honour to die in this way which is what the title suggests. Overall, the modern reader can learn a substantial amount from reading these poems as they all cover different aspects of the war but the most resourceful poem is ‘Dulce et Decorum est’ because the modern reader discovers the reality of life as a soldier and the ongoing difficulties that he has to face be it from staying clear from rats of escaping a gas attack. The stereotypical war idea has been removed and the reader can learn this through this poem.

Week Two Assessing the Goal of Sports Products, Inc Essay

Week Two Assessing the Goal of Sports Products, Inc - Essay Example For any organization the main aim should be maximization of the shareholder’s wealth, not just profit maximization of the organization. The shareholders can benefit in two ways; either by receiving dividend or by the internal growth of the company. From last 20 years the company hasn’t paid any cash dividend, so they can only be benefited by rise in stock price. At present the company’s shock price is going down although the company is making a good profit. This clearly indicates that the main goal of company is to just maximize profit as much as possible, because this directly affects the pay of managers. But on the same time company is losing its reputation in market which is evidenced by the declining stock price. Hence the management of Sports Products Inc. should change their present goal of profit maximization and should pay more emphasis on the shareholders’ benefits which can be only achieved if the stock price increases. As a company receives all its resources from the society, hence they also have some responsibility toward the betterment of the society. They should take care that any of their activity should not degrade the environment. At present the stock prices are doing down even when the financial report indicates a continuous rise in profits. This clearly indicates that there is some problem in the management. At present the management is emphasizing merely on profit maximization. Basically there are two ways for profit maximization- either increase the revenue or decrease the expenditure. The company is following the second one. They are trying to reduce their expenditure at all possible ways. Even they overlook the pollution norms for reducing cost. They dump their waste products directly into the adjacent stream. This not only pollutes the surrounding environment but it lead to highly hazardous diseases by polluting

Child Development Junk Food Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Child Development Junk Food - Essay Example Increasing rate of obesity, lower IQ, excessive use of artificial flavours, and the increasing rate of heart diseases, excessive blood pressure, and diabetes and cholesterol variations among the children give warning about the dangers of junk foods and it underlines the fact that junk foods have an effect on natural growth of children and it creates barriers in development process. Excessive use of junk foods affect development process and some studies endow with evidence that a considerable rate of difference in IQ level between children who practiced fast foods and children consumed vegetables and fruits. Jenny Hope rightly remarks; â€Å"Children who eat more chips, crisps, biscuits and pizza before the age of three have a lower IQ five years later, a study showed† (Hope, 2011). Young children who followed junk foods forced to accept more fat in their body and they get few vitamins and nutrients. Consequently, their brain never develops to optimum level. Children having low er IQ level show poor academic performance in their learning activities. Sooner or later, they feel practical problems in acquiring various skills like critical thinking, problem solving, decision making, listening, speaking, reading and writing. In case of physical health, junk foods put in severe health problems such as, obesity, depression, diabetes, and heart diseases. Generally, fast foods contain excessive amount of artificial flavours, colours, preservatives and other chemicals. All the above mentioned chemicals are not useful for human body. In addition, a child’s body is not capable to handle these chemicals. Development in scientific technology provides new facilities for cooking and these technological changes often forced the people to create a new food habit. â€Å"These innovations contributed to a shift away from home-cooked meals toward processed food, thus increasing obesity† (Paxon, 2006, p.71). Healthcare officials and doctors have forced to practice improved diet through consuming fresh fruits, vegetables and grains. Obesity and related overweight problems create critical health problems in a child’s life. It negatively affects child’s academic performances as well as physical growth. A recent study reports that approximately 30 percent of North American children are obese. The report also mentions that â€Å"In general, children eat too much, and much of what they eat is unhealthy† (Health in Motion, 2008). Unlike North American children, immigrant children consume few processed foods and eat more fresh foods and vegetables. As a result, immigrant children always keep better performance in their health than other children. Another significant problem is that junk foods have been connected to cholesterol and it paves the way for high blood pressure because of excessive sodium content. High blood pressure increases the possibility of heart strokes and related heart diseases. Overwhelming use of processed fo ods creates barriers in the process of digestion and human body always forced to spend maximum energy for digestion. Discussions about the value of junk foods have acquired serious attention among the doctors as well as in media. Consumers are not aware about the quality of these processed foods and often used worst items. Producers of fast foods used high amount of sugar content which gives unusual fat in human body. The online article entitled; Eating Junk Food

Discussion Board paragraph Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Discussion Board paragraph - Essay Example In criminological language, victimless crime is now expressed as Public order crime. Newman (2005) states that â€Å"The U.S. Government uses victimless crimes to control and manipulate its citizens. Prosecuting victimless crimes is driving our country into debt, destroying the Bill of Rights, destroying families and leaving more of our population in prison than any other country. Often the hysteria of victimless crimes traps innocent people and destroys their lives. Victimless crimes also erode respect for the law.†    There are convinced crimes, which may be measured as victimless crimes, which moreover are forbidden, or not. Certainly, almost everything can be forbidden (for instance not wearing a veil as a lady). This is merely a small list of genuine or historical illegal actions in western society that can be measured as victimless crimes. The laws beside victimless crimes are not straight intimidation to seclusion themselves. In criminalizing definite performance, society makes a verdict that there can be no personal importance in those actions. However victimless crime laws do bully the privacy of guiltless because of the scrutinizing and analysis they need for enforcement. No one of the contestant in a victimless crime will account it to authorities. To implement this kind of offense law, authorized authorities must employ in widespread observance, wiretapping, and close watch of suspected criminals and the community. Certain laws are: William Acton in his book â€Å"Prostitution† (1968) blames women for Prostitution when he says, â€Å""Every unchaste woman is not a prostitute. By unchastity a woman becomes liable to lose character, position, and the means of living; and when these are lost is too often reduced to prostitution for support, which, therefore, may be described as the trade adopted by all women who have abandoned an

Comparative Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Comparative Culture - Essay Example As Corrigan et al. (2003) suggest, one of the founding principles of this Constitution is that there will be no official state religion. The first amendment to the Constitution clearly states "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof . . . ". Thus there is no official "American" religion, nor can the practice of any religion be banned. While more than 80% of the American population profess to be Christian, there are literally hundreds of religions practices freely in America (Corrigan, 2003). While many Americans accept religious belief as a guiding precept within their lives there is, in general, a great deal of tolerance regarding the practice of opposing beliefs. America was in part founded and populated by successive groups of people who were escaping religious persecution in their home countries, and thus tolerance is ingrained within even the most devout believers of one faith or another (Shea, 2003). In contrast, more than 95% of Iraqis are Muslim. This figure alone might suggest that religion could be used as a unifying force within a country that appears on the surface to be hopelessly fragmented. Unfortunately this is not the case. Iraq is divided between three different religious blocs: the Sunni, the Shia and the Kurds. For many years the mutual antipathy between these three groups was kept essentially frozen by the dictatorial, brutal regime of Sadaam Hussein. This situation has changed with the American invasion of Iraq and the subsequent fragmentation of the country into rival factions, often based upon religion. Thus many Iraqis feel more allegiance to their religious group than they do to the country of Iraq. They feel Sunni, Shia or Kurd in a deeper way than they identify themselves as Iraqi. The Sunni were in the minority, but were privileged with this Hussein regime as he was a Sunni. The Sunni now find themselves virtually powerless (Algar, 2004). The Shia enjoy a majority position as far as numbers and have a number of charismatic religious leaders, but they are torn by internal strife. Thus many Iraqis essentially want a secular society based upon some version of Western democracy, while the more theocratic elements in all three of the major groups would like to see a theocracy built up. In many ways religion in Iraq is presently being used, both intentionally and unintentionally, as a catalyst for violence. Al Quaida deliberately uses its supposed fight for Muslim values against the West as a potent recruiting tool for new fighters. Both Sunni and Shia forces have killed one another in the name of defending their own particular brand of Islam. The Kurds seek independence at least partially based upon religious difference. To conclude, religion is an important aspect of life in both America and Iraq. But because the one is a stable, powerful country and the other one a region essentially on the brink of civil war, the comparison ends there. __________________________________________ Works Cited Algar, Hamid. Religion and Politics in Iraq: Shiite Clerics Between Quietism and Resiustance. Pustaka, New York: 2004. Corrigan, John. Hudson, Winthrop. Religion in America. Prentice-Hall, New

Fallout 1 and 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Fallout 1 and 2 - Essay Example It all started in 2052, when the Resource Wars erupted. The ravages of war, spawned by the famines in Africa and India, pollution in Asia, the rise of extremism in the Middle East, and the unquenching thirst for oil threatened to annihilate the world forever. No one knows whether China declared war on America, or vice versa, but the oil-hungry Chinese attack of 2066 on Alaska was the point of no return, when the genesis of a new terrifying, Great war, was on the horizon. Weeks turned into moths and moths turned into years, as the Alaskan trench warfare yielded nothing but blood and an unusable wasteland. America eventually won the war, but the plains of Alaska were never the same. A smoking ruin was all that was left of the Alaskan frontier. What was to follow was something far more horrific than anything man has faced before. The nuclear armageddon began in the morning on October 23 2077, resulting in the destruction of all major cities, polluting the oceans and creating changes tha t even dr. Moreau wouldn't imagine. Some scientists and artisans, soldiers and men of wealth managed to survive the holocaust by taking refuge in the massive shelters called Vaults, built before the war by a company called Vault-tec. These three-stories underground structures built deep inside the mountains shielded the survivors from the effects of radiation, disease, and other catastrophes. Equipped with G.E.C.K.'s, or the Garden of Eden Creation Kit, devices capable of creating a new life for the inhabitants of the Vault's after they returned to the surface, some of the Vaults managed to survive the earthquakes, attacks by the Raiders, and other disasters. People living in the Vaults survived the immediate destruction, but their descendants would face far greater challenges in a changed and desolate world. In Fallout 1, the events occur some 80 years later, in the year 2161. One of the shelters called Vault 13, located in Southern California, faces a serious difficulty- the Water Chip, a computer chip responsible for the water recycling and pumping machinery has stopped working. The Vault Overseer of Vault 13 has no choice but to assign the protagonist, an inhabitant of Vault 13, to the task of finding a new Water chip, therefore sending our hero into the harsh outside wasteland, armed with nothing but the PIPboy 2000 as a bookkeeping apparatus and bottle caps as currency. Our hero enters into a new world, fractured more by the various organizations and beliefs, than the unspeakable number on nuclear weapons that have scorched Earth's surface. One prominent organization is the Brotherhood of Steel, a quasi-political and religious group, which is strongly dedicated to the preservation of technology. Although the 3 classes within the organization are knights, paladins and scribes, the me mbers are not adhering to the rules of chivalry at all, since they are not concerned with the ones less fortunate than them. The New California Republic is also an important group in the new desolate world. Located in South California with its capital Shady Sands, it is probably the closest thing to states that existed before the war. It has a

How does the power of the media affect Chance, and how does his Essay

How does the power of the media affect Chance, and how does his consumption of media affect itself - Essay Example Chance is a total product of this broadcasting style, and as such is the darling of the televised world as it feeds on the incestual nature of the meaningless clich. The constant and total exposure to television had left Chance existing in a world that in fact did not exist. Chance can turn the world on and off as he wishes. We see in his thoughts the ethereal quality of his world when he muses, "As long as one didn't look at people, they did not exist. They began to exist, as on TV, when one turned ones eyes on them." (14). The world, like television, did not exist if it wasn't being watched. Chance did not exist, except when viewed by the few servants of the house and then only in brief encounters. The death of the Old Man would change all that. He would now go out into the public and be viewed and in doing so would be brought into existence. His persona would be the barren mind of inane comments and meaningless chatter. Television, like the people it has molded, would be anxious to attach deep meaning to the most baseless comments. The self-promoting arrogance of television purports to know what should be important and feeds the public a steady diet of sound bites. Viewers, wishing to not be seen as uninformed and uneducated are quick to attach meaning to almost anything. Chance's repetition of other people's words is enough to make him seem interested and interesting. Chance is the ambiguity that television needs to satisfy a diverse audience fed on hyperbole. As EE thought of Chance, she noted, "From the beginning, she noticed the meticulous care he took to insure that nothing he said to her or to anyone else was definite enough to reveal what he thought of her or of anyone or, indeed, of anything" (75). Chance, like television could be nothing at all and in doing so would seem to be all things to all people. This is where television excels and this is what Chance brings to the world and the notoriety that it brings with it. The mystery that lies behind the elusive and vacant mind of Chance has made him all the more interesting. Like the television he knows, his remarks, or lack of them, are viewed with an air of inquisitiveness. The sense that he was an important man makes his comments seem worthy, and tycoons, politicians, and viewers are eager to attach meaning in an attempt to elevate their own self worth. The mystery of this elusiveness is shown by EE's interest in Chance as she remarks, "Do you know that you're very brainy, very cerebral, really Chauncey, that you want to conquer the woman from within her own self,[...]" (79). Chance, like television, is all things to all people by being absolutely nothing at all. It is this sense of mystery that lulls the crowd into a seductive state of desire as viewers are treated to experts and pundits. We are told that the information is credible, yet we make of it what we will, each for our own purpose. Television feeds on this phenomena just as it celebrates Chance's meaningless musings as deep-seated wisdom of a financial guru. Speaking about the only subject he knows, gardening, television is able to attach a misplaced meaning to his words. Chance tells the host, "It's a good garden and a healthy one; its trees are healthy and so are its shrubs and flowers, as long as they are

Treasury and risk management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Treasury and risk management - Essay Example 60 165 28 -$28.00 Do Not Exercise $32.00 Long Share Profit or Loss = Current Stock Price – Spot Share Price For instance, when current stock price is $121 and the Purchase price is $171, the Long Share Profit or Loss = $(121-171) = -$50. Option Value = Strike Price – Current Stock Price For Instance, when the strike price is $165 and the current stock price is $121, the Option Value = $(165-121) = $44 (In-the-Money) Long Put Profit & Loss = Max [(Option Value – Premium paid), Premium paid] For Instance, when the premium paid is $28, Long Put Profit & Loss = Max [(44-28), -28] = $16 The option will be exercised only when there is a Long Put Profit otherwise the option will not be exercised and the loss will be limited to the initial premium paid. Hence, this strategy is also known as the ‘Protective put’ strategy. For instance, when current stock price is $121 and premium paid is $28, the option should be exercised. Similarly, for different current st ock prices, the protective put strategy can be computed. ... e), Premium paid] = Max [(165-121), -28] = $34 So, from the above it can be said that if the put is at $121, only loss of $34 and if put is not exercised, loss will be $50. Hence, the breakeven share price is $199. It implies that the hedger will start to make profit after crossing the breakeven point of $199 when all premiums are paid and initial purchasing cost of shares are taken into consideration. Section (c) The protective put strategy diagram along with the breakeven point is shown below, Answer 2. Section (a) Introduction Many analysts believe that the European economy is likely to face more turmoil before it finally gets better. Greece owes a total debt of â‚ ¬490 billion to various banks in Euro zone. Analysts believe that if Greece fails to repay its debt then the impact of default will be directly felt by the small as well as the large businesses in UK. With such a huge amount of debt, if Greece really fails to repay and leave Euro, then the consequence of that will be mostly felt by the various banks in UK and Euro to whom Greece owes. Argument Defaulting of Greece or separating Greece from the Euro zone may not be suitable options to revive the European economy since the implication of both outcomes will paralyze the European economy as well as the global markets. This is mainly because of the fact that the banks do not work in isolation. They are connected to each other through debt guarantees or collaterals and insurance products (Mylonas, 2011, pp.81-84). Assuming that the Greece will default and then the most probable impact will be that about eighty percent of British banks will have less money to lend out to individuals and businesses. Consequently, if the bank’s lending slows down then the consumer consumption will decline leading to deflation in

Le Confessionnal - Research paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Le Confessionnal - - Research Paper Example This not only shows a cultural type of grammar toward Quebec and the French during this time frame but is also directly linked to other movies which associated with the same cultural beliefs. Historical Background of the Film Le Confessional was first written in 1994 and released in 1995 as a Canadian film in Quebec. The background also links to the shooting of Hitchcock’s film, I Confess, released in 1952. There are several shots and references to this particular movie as a flash back and as an association with the culture of Quebec when this film was created. The approach which this took as well as the unique perspective which was associated with the film led to distinguished responses from viewers. This included the Genie Award for Best Canadian Film in 1996. The noticed reactions were not only based on the double storyline and philosophical approach that was taken. There were also attributes to the cinematography, acting and the structure that the film had in revealing the double time periods and the twisting of plots (Canadian Film Encyclopedia, 115). The inspiration for the film is one that is directly linked to the instructions of Robert LePage and the approach which was taken with the film. LePage was born in Quebec City in December of 1957. He was not only known as a director, but also worked as a playwright, actor and stage director. LePage began theater in high school as an outlet for his personality. From 1975-1978, he began to study theater at the Conservatory for Art Drama. He also studied in France under the direction of Alain Knapp for direction in theater. After coming back to Quebec, LePage began to participate in different theater opportunities, including the Theater Repere in 1982. Through this time, LePage used independent films and short cuts as his main outlet. In 1984, LePage released his first full film, Circulations, which was recognized for the best Canadian production at the International Theater of Quebec. After this release, he began producing several films that continued to gain wide recognition and international critiques for their unique plot lines and cinematography (Caux, Gilbert, 7). Even though LePage was working with film, he also continued to work on the theater. From 1989 – 1993, LePage produced a variety of stage plays, including Shakespeare classics and his own writing. It wasn’t until 1994 that LePage was able to move into a complete studio that he opened, known as Ex Machina. He became the artistic director of the productions that were worked on, including The Far Side of the Moon and Elsinore. LePage directed a total of four films, with Le Confessional as his first approach. He was also known for his acting in Jesus de Montreal and Stardom, both feature films by Denys Arcand. His acting is followed by his musical talent where he worked with providing funding for tours while working in opera as well as acting. The works of LePage are continuously involving both theater and f ilm productions as well as experimental works, such as street plays, that LePage works with to make statements related to societal problems and philosophies. The several areas of success by LePage have caused him to be one of the most recognized forces of talent in Canada. In 1994, he was made Officer of the Order of Canada for his works. This was

A View from the Bridge Essay Example for Free

A View from the Bridge Essay Pride plays a great role in the play, â€Å"A View from the Bridge†. The biggest victim of pride is Eddie, who loses both his pride and respect throughout the play. And this gradual loss heavily affects the characters’ behaviors. However pride does not seem to be the only factor that dictates the progress of the play. In the beginning of the play, Eddie is full of pride. He is respected by both Marco and Rodolfo as well as the community. The quote, â€Å"I want to tell you now Eddie – when you say go, we will go,† shows that Marco and Rodolfo respect Eddie. The quote in other words means that Marco and Rodolfo will be doing whatever Eddie tells them to do. The fact that this is Marco’s first significant line in the play shows how important Marco thinks of Eddie. Also the hyphen in the middle of the sentence gives effect, which emphasizes the message Marco is trying to send to Eddie. The pride Marco and Rodolfo give Eddie in the family allows Eddie to lower his guard and gives him a chance to respect Marco as well. This perspective can be seen from the following line. Eddie says, â€Å"You’re welcome, Marco, we got plenty of room here. † He addresses Marco, which shows that Eddie is in favor of him. Then the second part of the line, â€Å"we got plenty of room here. †, not only shows the Eddie is welcoming Marco, but it also shows that Eddie has given Marco his respect. A â€Å"Room† in their house symbolizes respect. At first, Eddie and Marco both have each other’s trust and respect, giving them both pride which brings the two to a peaceful relationship. Later as the play progresses Eddie begins to lose his pride. Marco says, â€Å"Here. (the chair raised like a weapon over Eddie’s head – and he transforms what might appear like a glare of warning into a smile of triumph)† The simplicity of the sentence emphasizes Marco’s loss of respect for Eddie. The stage direction, â€Å"Over Eddie’s head† also symbolizes how Marco has overcome Eddie. Also the â€Å"glare of warning† shows that Marco no longer thinks of Eddie as someone he should respect. The story continues as Eddie loses his pride. Pride is very important to Eddie. He says â€Å"Yeah Marco! Eddie Carbone. Eddie Carbone. Eddie Carbone. † His name symbolizes his pride and the repetition of it shows the importance of his name in Eddie’s heart. Also he does not just say his first name but also his last name, which also emphasizes his name – his pride. The community’s reaction is another event that comes from pride. â€Å"(Lipari and wife exits†¦ Louis barely turns, then walks off the stage and exits down right with Mike. )† is a stage direction that shows the community’s reaction to what Eddie had done to Marco and Rodolfo. Lipari and his wife, Louis, and Mike represent the community. The fact that they have â€Å"walked off† and â€Å"exited† indicates that the whole community has turned their backs on Eddie. From there, we can see that Eddie has lost his pride in his community as well as his family. Although pride is a main factor behind the progression of the play, loyalty and family relationships, also play a very important role. Family relationships play a very important role. This could be seen from Beatrice’s line, â€Å"Eddie, listen to me. Who could give you your name? Listen to me, I love you, I’m talking to you. I love you. † The short sentences make the sentence feel real and have a real impact, as if Beatrice is really trying to talk to Eddie. Furthermore, the repetition of the phrases, â€Å"listen to me† and â€Å"I love you† emphasizes how much Beatrice really cares about Eddie. Pride and family relationships play a huge rule in the progression of the play.

Vrouwen in topfuncties

Vrouwen in topfuncties Vrouwen in topfuncties 1. Inleiding 2. Wat is een topfunctie? 3. Vrouwen op de arbeidsmarkt en in topfuncties 3.1 Hoe is de situatie nu met vrouwen op de totale arbeidsmarkt? 3.2 Hoe is de situatie nu met het aantal vrouwen in topfuncties? 4. Oorzaken 4.1 Wat zijn de oorzaken van het grote verschil in aantal mannen en vrouwen in topfuncties? 5. Quotum 5.1 Waarom zou de overheid een quotum voor het aantal vrouwen in topfuncties in willen stellen? 5.2 Waarom zouden bedrijven een quotum voor het aantal vrouwen in topfuncties in willen stellen? 5.3 Hoe kijkt de bevolking aan tegen een quotum? 5.4 Waarom zou er geen quotum ingesteld moeten worden? 6. Mogelijkheden om arbeidsparticipatie van vrouwen te verhogen 6.1 Welke mogelijkheden zijn er om de arbeidsparticipatie van vrouwen te verhogen op de totale arbeidsmarkt? 6.2 Welke mogelijkheden zijn er om de arbeidsparticipatie van vrouwen de verhogen in topfuncties? 7. Conclusie Bijlagen 1. Inleiding Het onderwerp van ons profielwerkstuk is vrouwen in topfuncties. Al jaren is er veel aandacht voor het lage aantal vrouwen in topfuncties. Uit onderzoeken van het Europese statistiekbureau Eurostat en headhuntersbedrijf Woman Capital blijkt dat Nederland internationaal gezien bijzonder laag scoort als het gaat om het aantal vrouwen in de top. Voorzitter van de FNV, Agnes Jongerius, zegt ook in een artikel van de volkskrant van 2 april 2008 dat Nederland samen met Botswana ergens onderaan bungelt qua vrouwen in topfuncties en dat wanneer het niet wettelijk verplicht wordt er weinig zal veranderen. Sinds 2007/2008 wordt in Nederland gedebatteerd over een quotum om het aantal vrouwen in topfuncties te verhogen. We hebben vrouwen in topfuncties als onderwerp voor ons profielwerkstuk gekozen, omdat het een erg actueel onderwerp is. We vinden het interessant om te kijken waarom er zoveel aandacht is in de politiek en media voor de kleine doorstroom vrouwen naar topfuncties en waardoor dit komt. Ook zijn we benieuwd of een instelling van een quotum een verandering in de mannencultuur in topfuncties kan brengen. Onze hoofdvraag luidt als volgt: Is het een verbetering als er een quotum komt voor vrouwen in topfuncties?. Wij denken dat we niet op een duidelijk ja of nee zullen uitkomen, omdat verbetering een groot begrip is. Er is geen duidelijke maatstaaf waarmee wij kunnen meten of het quotum een verbetering is. Bovendien zal het quotum, als het wordt ingevoerd, pas in 2012 ingevoerd worden en is de werkelijke verbetering dus nu nog niet te meten en kunnen we alleen nog spreken vanuit verwachtingen. Het doel van ons profielwerkstuk is dat we in onze conclusie kunnen motiveren wat de positieve veranderingen zullen zijn van de instelling van het quotum en wat de negatieve veranderingen zullen zijn, maar dus nog geen duidelijke uitspraak of het quotum zal leiden tot een verbetering. Om onze hoofdvraag te kunnen beantwoorden, hebben we de volgende deelvragen opgesteld: 1. Wat is een topfunctie? 2.1 Hoe staan vrouwen op de gehele arbeidsmarkt? 2.2 Hoe staan vrouwen op de arbeidsmarkt van topfuncties? 3.1 Waarom moet er een quotum voor het aantal vrouwen in topfuncties worden ingesteld? 3.2 Waarom zou een quotum voor het aantal vrouwen in topfuncties niet ingesteld moeten worden? 4.1 Welke manieren zijn er om de arbeidsparticipatie van vrouwen te verhogen? 4.2 Welke manieren zijn er om de arbeidsparticipatie van vrouwen in topfuncties te verhogen, naast een quotum? 5.1 Kunnen vrouwen topfuncties bekleden? 5.2 Willen vrouwen topfuncties bekleden? 5.3 Is de instelling van een quotum juridisch haalbaar? De antwoorden op deze vragen willen we op twee manieren verzamelen. De eerste manier is informatie verzamelen via internet. Hierbij is de website van het Centraal Bureau van Statistiek (CBS) een grote informatiebron voor ons, onder andere voor deelvraag 2. Ook gebruiken we veel op internet gepubliceerde onderzoeken, onder andere om argumenten te kunnen vormen voor en tegen de instelling van een quotum voor deelvraag 3. De tweede manier waarop we aan onze informatie komen is onze enquà ªte. Met de enquà ªte willen we te weten komen hoe de bevolking tegen het aantal vrouwen in topfuncties kijkt en hoe de bevolking kijkt tegen de instelling van een quotum. De uitkomsten van deze enquà ªte verwerken we in paragraaf 5. Tenslotte de vraag: wat heeft het profielwerkstuk voor ons voor nut gehad? Het belangrijkste wat we van het profielwerkstuk hebben geleerd, is tijdsplanning Het profielwerkstuk is een groot project waar 80 uur per persoon in moet zitten. We zijn rond september 2009 begonnen en de enige echte deadline die we hadden was 1 maart 2010. Om op 1 maart een goed profielwerkstuk te kunnen inleveren is tijdsplanning à ©Ãƒ ©n van de belangrijkste dingen die je nodig hebt. Zonder tijdsplanning kom je op het laatst namelijk ontzettend in tijdsnood en dat komt je werk nooit ten goede. Natuurlijk hebben we de afgelopen jaren op school al heel veel geleerd over tijdsplanning, maar het profielwerkstuk is het laatste, grootste project waarin dit tot uiting komt. 2. Wat is een topfunctie? In deze paragraaf gaat het om het definià «ren van een topfunctie. Ondanks dat er een bepaald beeld hangt rondom het woord topfunctie, workaholics met een hoog salaris en ze zijn erg belangrijk voor het bedrijf, is het moeilijk uit te leggen wat een topfunctie nou precies is. Dat het lastig is om een topfunctie te definià «ren, komt doordat er geen duidelijke maatstaaf is die voor elke sector gelijk is voor wanneer een functie een topfunctie is en wanneer de functie behoort tot een middenfunctie. Dit verschilt namelijk per sector en bedrijf. Het ligt aan de omvang en gelaagdheid van het bedrijf, dus kan een functie in het ene bedrijf wel tot een topfunctie gerekend worden, maar in een ander bedrijf niet. Een oplossing hiervoor zou kunnen zijn om te definià «ren aan de hand van afgeleide indicatoren, bijvoorbeeld salarisniveau. Maar ook dit is lastig, omdat afgeleide indicatoren vaak geen betrouwbare maatstaaf zijn. Salarissen kunnen namelijk per sector of bedrijf verschillen: mensen met dezelfde functie verdienen niet per definitie hetzelfde salaris. Een voorbeeld hiervan is het verschil tussen het salaris van mannen en vrouwen en het gemeten aantal vrouwen in topfuncties kan hierdoor dus te laag uitvallen. Een ander criterium voor een topfunctie zou de functie-inhoud kunnen zijn, bijvoorbeeld in welke mate de werknemer beslissingsbevoegd is of over hoeveel mensen hij/zij leiding geeft. Hier zit men echter met hetzelfde probleem. Het is onmogelijk om een beschrijving van de functie-inhoud te maken die voor elke sector en elk soort bedrijf te hanteren is. Het is nu dus duidelijk dat topfuncties in verschillende sectoren niet over een kam te scheren zijn. Daarom worden topfuncties vaak gecategoriseerd in de volgende categorieà «n: het bedrijfsleven, het maatschappelijk middenveld, politiek en openbare functies. In het bedrijfsleven wordt vaak het hoogste orgaan van het bedrijf, dus degene die de dagelijkse leiding in handen heeft, als de echte top top gezien. Dit hoogste orgaan wordt de raad van bestuur of raad van directie genoemd. Ook hoort het orgaan dat toezicht houdt op het functioneren van het bedrijf tot topfuncties. Dit orgaan wordt aangeduid met verschillende namen, het vaakst met de naam raad van commissarissen, maar ook wel met de raad van toezicht, of de raad van advies. Het maatschappelijk middenveld houdt de non-profitsector in, dus de instellingen die winst maken niet als doelstelling hebben. De non-profitsector hebben we in dit geval opgesplitst in de delen: onderwijs, sociaaleconomische instellingen en zorg en welzijn. In het onderwijs behoren de managementfuncties in het basis- middelbaar- en hoger beroepsonderwijs en hoogleraren tot topfuncties. In de sociaaleconomische sector en zorg en welzijn worden dezelfde namen als in het bedrijfsleven gehanteerd, dus raad van bestuur en raad van commissarissen. In de politiek worden de leden van de Eerste en Tweede Kamer tot topfuncties gerekend, evenals de gedeputeerden in de provinciebesturen en Commissarissen van de Koningin. In de lokale politiek bekleed men een topfunctie als burgemeesters of lid van het bestuur van de waterschappen. Het openbaar bestuur bestaat uit de rechterlijke macht, Raad van State, Algemene Rekenkamer, het politiekorps en de Sociaaleconomische Raad (SER). In de rechterlijke macht bekleden rechters en officieren van justitie topfuncties en de politietop bestaat uit iedereen met schaal 14 of hoger. Tenslotte is er de ambtelijke top. In de overheid behoren de functies van secretarissen-generaal, directeuren-generaal, topambtenaren, statengriffiers, gemeentesecretarissen en secretarissen waterschappen tot topfuncties. 3. Huidige situatie van vrouwen op de arbeidsmarkt en in topfuncties In deze deelvraag wordt beschreven hoe het de afgelopen jaren ervoor staat met vrouwen in topfuncties. Om dit helder te krijgen gaat het eerst over hoe vrouwen staan op de totale arbeidsmarkt, dus: wat is de arbeidsdeelname van vrouwen, hoeveel werken er voltijd en hoeveel deeltijd, hoe zijn vrouwen verdeeld over de verschillende opleidingsniveaus, hoe gaat het met de combinatie van zorgen voor kinderen en werk en ten slotte hoe is het inkomen van vrouwen ten opzichte van mannen. Daarna wordt het verkleind van de gehele arbeidsmarkt naar topfuncties, dus: hoeveel topfuncties worden er bekleed door vrouwen en wat zijn de redenen voor dit aantal vrouwen in topfuncties. In deze deelvraag wordt gebruik gemaakt van gegevens uit 2007 en 2008, omdat recenter nog niet beschikbaar is. Sommige gegevens uit 2008 zijn ook niet te verkrijgen, daarom wordt er in die gevallen over 2007 gesproken. Het grootste deel van de gegevens komt uit de emancipatiemonitor 2008 van het Centraal Bureau voor Statistiek (CBS). 3.1 Hoe is de situatie nu met vrouwen op de totale arbeidsmarkt? Arbeidsparticipatie In 2008 telt Nederland 5.454.000 vrouwen tussen 15 en 65. De netto arbeidsparticipatie van deze vrouwen is in 2008 59%, dat betekent een stijging van 1,8% ten opzichte van 2007. Absoluut gezien houdt dit in dat er 3.217.860 werkende vrouwen zijn in 2008. Als de netto arbeidsdeelname van vrouwen op deze manier door blijft groeien, wordt het streefcijfer van de overheid van 65% in 2010 niet gehaald. De netto arbeidsparticipatie is het laagst onder vrouwen tussen 55 tot en met 65 jaar, vrouwen met alleen basisonderwijs en Turkse en Marokkaanse vrouwen. 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Streefwaarde 52,3 53,5 54,8 56,0 57,3 58,5 59,6 61,0 62,3 63,5 65,0 Realisatie 52,0 53,0 53,0 53,0 53,0 53,0 55,0 57,0 [1] Naast netto arbeidsparticipatie is er ook de bruto arbeidsparticipatie, bij de bruto arbeidsparticipatie worden niet alleen de werkende bevolking meegerekend maar ook de werkzoekenden. In 2008 is er een bruto arbeidsparticipatie van 62% en dit is een stijging van 1,3% ten opzichte van 2007. Met een gelijkblijvende ontwikkeling kan het streefcijfer van 74% in 2016 wel worden gerealiseerd. Van de vrouwen van 15 tot 65 jaar met een baan van 12 uur of meer per week werkt 69% in deeltijd en dit is zo goed als gelijk gebleven aan 2007. Wel is er een verschuiving van kleine naar (middel)grote deeltijdbanen. Het gemiddelde aantal werkuren per week is in 2007 24,8 uur. 69% Van de werkende vrouwen heeft dus een deeltijdbaan, dit is ontzettend hoog vergeleken met het buitenland. Duitsland komt nog het dichts bij Nederland in de buurt met 49%. Het werkloosheidpercentage ligt bij vrouwen iets lager dan bij mannen, namelijk 6% tegenover 4% in 2007. En arbeidsongeschiktheid komt even veel voor bij mannen als bij vrouwen. Opleidingsniveau In het schooljaar 2007/2008 volgden ruim 900.000 leerlingen een opleiding in het voortgezet onderwijs, de verhouding tussen man en vrouw is hier ongeveer gelijk. Meisjes volgen minder vaak dan jongens het VMBO: van de meisjes volgden 27% een basis- of kaderberoepsgerichte leerweg tegenover 32% van de jongens. Meisjes gaan ook vaker naar de havo dan jongens, 24% van de meisjes kiest voor de havo versus 23% van de jongens. De percentages binnen het vwo liggen verder uit elkaar, 23% van de meisjes koos namelijk voor het vwo en dit staat tegenover 19% van de jongens. In schooljaar 2006/2007 slaagden vrouwen gemiddeld op hogere mbo-niveaus dan mannen. Van alle vrouwen die slaagden op het MBO had 70% een diploma op niveau 3 of 4, dit was bij mannen 55%. In schooljaar 2007/2008 was zowel op het HBO als op het WO 51% van de studenten vrouw. Vrouwen studeren over het algemeen sneller af dan mannen. Op het HBO was 65% van de vrouwen die in 2007 afstudeerden 5 jaar geleden begonnen aan de studie en bij de mannen was dit 51%. Op het WO was dit ongeveer 75% van de vrouwen die hun studie in 6 jaar hadden afgerond tegenover 60% van de mannen. Combinatie zorg en werk De komst van kinderen zorgt in veel gezinnen voor een verandering in de verdeling van de arbeid. In 2007 ging circa 33% van de vrouwen minder werken door de komst van hun eerste kind en 10% van de vrouwen stopte helemaal met werken. Laag opgeleide vrouwen doen dit vaker (17%) dan middelbaar (9%) en hoogopgeleide vrouwen (8%). 40% Van de moeders in 2007 bleef evenveel werken of ging zelfs meer werken. Hierbij moet wel worden gezegd dat het hier vooral gaat om kleine of middelgrote deeltijdbanen, dus deeltijdbanen tussen de 12 en 27 uur per week. Vooral vrouwen met een voltijdbaan of een grote deeltijdbaan gingen minder werken. In tegenstelling tot vrouwen blijft 90% van de mannen evenveel werken als voor de komst van het eerste kind. Naast helemaal niet (meer) werken, komt dus het werken in deeltijd voor. Deeltijdbanen worden het meest uitgevoerd door vrouwen met kinderen. Bij 7% van de paren tussen de 25 en 49 jaar werken beide ouders in voltijd, terwijl 53% voor een combinatie van voltijd en deeltijd kiest. Vooral de middelgrote deeltijdbaan is relatief populair bij vrouwen na de geboorte van het eerste kind. Ruim 25% van de moeders werkte na de geboorte in een middelgrote deeltijdbaan. De meerderheid van de bevolking vindt dat voor moeders een deeltijdbaan van hoogstens 3 dagen het meeste ideaal is. Voor vaders wordt een werkweek van vier of vijf dagen het meest ideaal gevonden. Ouderschapsverlof wordt vooral door moeders opgenomen, namelijk 40% van de moeders tegenover 16% van de vaders. Ook is er een verschil tussen opleidingsniveau: 56% van de hoogopgeleide vrouwen neemt ouderschapsverlof en 17% van de laagopgeleide en 33% van de middelbaar opgeleide vrouwen. Om zorg en werk te combineren zijn er verschillende voorzieningen. De formele opvang zoals het kinderdagverblijf, gastouder opvang en buitenschoolse opvang. Daarnaast is er de informele opvang zoals het oppassen door familie of vrienden. Hoogopgeleide ouders maken vooral gebruik van de formele opvang en laag- en middelbaar opgeleide ouders maken iets vaker gebruik van de informele opvang. Inkomen Het eigen inkomen van vrouwen is een stuk lager dan dat van mannen. Dit verschil heeft twee oorzaken: de arbeidsparticipatie van vrouwen, zowel in personen als in uren, is lager dan die van mannen, en vrouwen krijgen vaak een lager loon dan mannen voor hetzelfde werk. In 2007 ontvingen vrouwen 56% voor betaald werk van wat mannen verdienden. Dit is hetzelfde als in 2003 en de inkomensverschillen zijn de afgelopen jaren dus niet afgenomen. In de grafiek staat het inkomen van vrouwen als percentage van dat van mannen in 2007. Er is te zien dat het inkomen van vrouwen altijd lager is dan dat van mannen, behalve in de bijstand. Dit omdat deze uitkering niet gebaseerd is op een eerder verdiend loon, maar op het type huishouding. Onder de bijstandsontvangers zijn veel alleenstaande moeders en die verdienen meer dan alleenstaanden zonder kinderen, daardoor is het inkomen van vrouwen met bijstand gemiddeld iets hoger dan van mannen met bijstand. Ook zijn er grote verschillen in de inkomensverdeling van mannen en vrouwen. Vrouwen hebben vaker een lager inkomen dan mannen, zoals in de grafiek hierboven (uit 2007) te zien is. Er is een piek bij de à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬9.000, dit zijn vooral gehuwde vrouwen met alleen een AOW-uitkering. Ook piekt de grafiek van vrouwen bij de à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬17.000, dit zijn voornamelijk bijstandsmoeders. Bij mannen zijn mindere pieken bij bepaalde inkomens en komen meer hogere inkomens voor dan bij vrouwen. 3.2 Hoe is de situatie nu met vrouwen in topfuncties? Er komt steeds meer aandacht voor het aantal vrouwen in topfuncties. Verschillende organisaties en het kabinet vinden dat er meer vrouwen moeten komen in de top van het bedrijfsleven. Om het aantal vrouwen in topfuncties te vergroten worden verschillende maatregelen overwogen en sommige worden al uitgevoerd. Een voorbeeld hiervan is het Charter Talent naar de top, hiermee legden 47 organisaties zich in 2008 vast om concrete doelstellingen en een plan van aanpak te bedenken om meer vrouwen in topfuncties te laten werken. Ook wordt er gesproken over een quotum voor vrouwen in topfuncties. Het quotum zal inhouden dat in 2012 40% van de topfuncties bekleed moet worden door vrouwen. In het artikel FNV: Quotum vrouwen in topfuncties van de Volkskrant op 2 April 2008 zegt FNV-voorzitter (Federatie Nederlandse Vakbeweging, belangenbehartiger van werknemers) Agnes Jongerius dat Nederland qua aantal vrouwen in topfuncties samen met Botswana ergens onderaan bungelt en dat zonder wettelijke verp lichtingen het percentage niet zal stijgen. Jongerius vindt dat Nederland een voorbeeld aan Noorwegen moet nemen. In Noorwegen is namelijk een quotum ingesteld zodat het wettelijk verplicht wordt voor bedrijven 40% van de functies in raden van commissarissen door vrouwen bezet te hebben. Jongerius vindt dat Nederland een soortgelijk quotum in zou moeten stellen. In Noorwegen is de instelling van het quotum vrij soepel verlopen en tot nu toe zijn de van te voren besproken nadelen nog erg meegevallen. Maar ondanks het gestegen opleidingsniveau van vrouwen en de aandacht van het kabinet en verschillende maatschappelijke organisaties voor het aantal vrouwen in topfuncties neemt het aantal vrouwen in deze functies maar heel langzaam toe. De eerste oorzaak hiervan is te halen uit deelvraag 2.1, namelijk dat de arbeidsparticipatie van vrouwen erg laag is en dat bovendien ook nog eens 69% van deze vrouwen parttime werkt. Deze 69% van de werkende vrouwen valt per definitie al af, omdat een topfunctie de werkuren van een fulltime baan eist en bovendien is er in praktijk geregeld sprake van overwerken. Uit onderzoek van de RUG blijkt dat dit de grootste belemmering is voor vrouwen om door te stromen naar de top. Bovendien wordt een carrià ¨reonderbreking vanwege moederschap op je CV gezien als minpunt. Een tweede oorzaak is dat het in veel bedrijven en organisaties standaard is om mannen aan te nemen voor de hogere functies. Er heerst een zogenoemde blanke mannencultuur waarin vrouwen de uitzondering vormen. Tenslotte zijn er nog oorzaken te noemen die vaak op gevoelskwesties gebaseerd zijn, zoals het gebrek aan vertrouwen in vrouwen en onderwaardering van vrouwelijke kwaliteiten. In 2007 werd 7% van de topfuncties van de 100 grootste bedrijven door vrouwen bekleed. Het streefcijfer van het emancipatiebeleid is 20% in 2010 en met een quotum dus 40% in 2012. Als de groei op deze manier door zal gaan, zal dit streefcijfer uiteraard niet gehaald worden, ook al zijn er de laatste tijd wel steeds meer plannen gemaakt zoals het Charter Talent naar de Top die wellicht invloed zullen hebben op een sterkere stijging van vrouwen in topfuncties. Het aantal vrouwen in managementfuncties in hogere en wetenschappelijke beroepen is hoger, in 2004 was het 21% en in 2007 27%. Van alle leidinggevende is 27% een vrouw, absoluut gezien zijn er 280.000 leidinggevende vrouwen en 768.000 mannen. Het aantal hoogleraren in 2007 is 11% en er wordt gestreefd naar 15% in 2010. In de overheid is het aandeel vrouwen onder hogere en topambtenaren gegroeid van 17% in 2006 tot 20% in 2008. Het streefcijfer voor vrouwelijke topambtenaren is 25% in 2011. Uit een onderzoek van het Centraal Bureau van Statistiek, onderdeel van de emancipatiemonitor 2008, blijkt dat het grootste deel van de bevolking vindt dat er te weinig vrouwen in topfuncties werken en dat dit zou moeten veranderen. Een meerderheid van de vrouwen en een grote minderheid van de mannen vindt dat het aantal vrouwen in topfuncties zou moeten verdubbelen. 4. Oorzaken van sekseverschil in topfuncties 4.1 Wat zijn de oorzaken van het verschil in aantal mannen en vrouwen in topfuncties? Dat er een groot verschil is in het aantal mannen en vrouwen in topfuncties, was te zien in paragraaf 3.2. In deze paragraaf worden een aantal oorzaken van dit verschil behandelt. Het is belangrijk om de oorzaken van de kleine doorstroom vrouwen naar topfuncties te kennen, omdat er dan ook meer gerichte mogelijkheden bedacht kunnen worden om het aantal vrouwen in de top te verhogen. In de literatuur worden de oorzaken van het verschil in mannen en vrouwen in topfuncties verdeeld in vijf soorten en in deze paragraaf zullen we deze vijf soorten ook hanteren. Per soort oorzaak zullen we de belangrijkste oorzaken noemen en uitleggen. De soorten oorzaken zijn als volgt ingedeeld[2]: 4.1.1. Macro-economisch en sociaal-cultureel 4.1.2. Organisatiecultuur 4.1.3. Organisatiebeleid 4.1.4. Persoonlijkheid 4.1.5. Loopbaan- en levensloopkeuzes. 4.1.1 Macro-economisch en sociaal-cultureel De eerste oorzaak is dat het voor de niet of minst verdienende partner vaak niet loont om (meer) te gaan werken, omdat het extra verdiende loon maar weinig bijdraagt aan het gezinsinkomen. Dit komt door de marginale lastendruk[3]. In Nederland is sprake van een progressieve inkomstenbelasting, dus wanneer men meer verdient, moet men ook meer belasting betalen. Ook zijn bijvoorbeeld de kosten van kinderopvang en de hoogte van een huurtoeslag afhankelijk van het inkomen, dus bij een hoger loon worden dit soort voordelen kleiner. Door deze marginale lastendruk wegen in veel gezinnen de lasten (het werken) niet op tegen de baten (de inkomsten), omdat de baten niet evenredig groeien met de lasten en dus zal de niet of minst verdienende partner niet (meer) gaan werken. De niet of minst verdienende partner is vaak de vrouw, want zij heeft gemiddeld een lager uurloon dan de man en het aantal vrouwen dat (tijdelijk) stopt of minder gaat werken is vele malen hoger dan het aantal mannen die dit doen. Doordat er in veel gezinnen hierom wordt gekozen om de vrouw niet of minder te laten werken dan de man, stromen er ook minder vrouwen door naar de top, omdat hiervoor een fulltime baan nodig is en het aanbod vrouwen voor topfuncties kleiner is. Een tweede oorzaak is dat het voor veel gezinnen lastig is om zorg en werk te combineren. Een voorbeeld waaruit blijkt dat zorg en werk lastig te combineren kan zijn is het niet gelijk lopen van school- en werktijden. Bovendien is er een gebrek aan goede en betaalbare kinderopvang, volgens SEO Economisch Onderzoek[4]. Ook is het in de Nederlandse cultuur gewoon dat Nederlandse vrouwen een deel van de zorg zelf willen doen[5]. Door deze punten blijven veel vrouwen (gedeeltelijk) thuis om voor de kinderen te zorgen, waardoor minder vrouwen een fulltime baan bekleden en het aanbod vrouwen voor topfuncties dus weer kleiner is. 4.1.2. Organisatiecultuur Met organisatiecultuur wordt de cultuur in het bedrijf of in de organisatie bedoelt. Hier spelen barrià ¨res die vrouwen tegenkomen tijdens hun doorstroom naar de top en vooroordelen om vrouwen een rol. Voorbeelden van barrià ¨res die vrouwen tegenkomen tijdens hun doorstroom naar de top zijn het glazen plafond en de heersende mannencultuur in topfuncties. Het glazen plafond betekent dat mannen vaker mannen aannemen dan vrouwen en daardoor is het lastig voor vrouwen dit glazen plafond te doorbreken. Het glazen plafond wordt in stand gehouden doordat er vooral mannen op de hogere managementfuncties zitten en dus zijn het vooral de mannen die in de positie zijn om mensen aan te nemen. De heersende mannencultuur in de top heeft ook op een andere manier invloed op de kleine doorstroom vrouwen naar topfuncties. Naar mate vrouwen hoger op de carrià ¨reladder komen, komen ze in een steeds sterker wordende mannencultuur. Om zich te kunnen blijven handhaven, passen ze zich aan, aan deze mannencultuur[6]. Dit wordt vervolgens niet gewaardeerd, omdat hun vrouwelijk kwaliteiten hierdoor verloren gaan en ze nooit een beter man zullen zijn dan de echte mannen die al in deze functies aanwezig zi jn. Ook wordt een mannelijke manier van leidinggeven, dus een directe stijl van leidinggeven, door een vrouw als negatiever ervaren dan wanneer een man op deze manier leiding geeft[7]. Ook heersen er in de cultuur van bedrijven en organisaties vooroordelen om vrouwen. Er wordt vaak uitgegaan van stereotypen mannen en vrouwen. In het bestand Oorzaken van beperkte in- en doorstroom van vrouwen[8] wordt door Karin Jettinghoff, Guurtje van Sloten en Cristel van de Ven (2005) het volgende over deze vooroordelen gezegd: Stereotype denkbeelden over mannen en vrouwen (bijvoorbeeld: vrouwen zijn zorgzaam, emotioneel en afhankelijk van anderen terwijl mannen onafhankelijk, besluitvaardig en charismatisch zijn) zorgen er voor dat mannen vaker uitdagende taken krijgen toegewezen dan vrouwen. Het uitvoeren van uitdagende taken is een belangrijke voorspellende factor voor doorstroom; In Europa wordt het algemene beeld van de ideale manager vooral gekarakteriseerd aan de hand van mannelijke eigenschappen, als charismatisch, ambitieus en ondernemend. Deze percepties maken dat men mannen vaak eerder ziet als geschikte kandidaat voor een leidinggevende functie dan vrouwen. (blz. 1) Hieruit blijkt dus dat de stereotype denkbeelden en vooroordelen leiden tot een kleinere doorstroom vrouwen naar topfuncties. Vrouwen worden door deze denkbeelden en vooroordelen minder in de mogelijkheid gesteld door te stromen. 4.1.3. Organisatiebeleid Met organisatiebeleid wordt het gevoerde beleid door bedrijven of organisaties bedoelt. Het gevoerde organisatiebeleid kan leiden tot een kleinere doorstroom vrouwen naar topfuncties wanneer er geen emancipatiebeleid wordt gevoerd, beloningsverschillen tussen mannen en vrouwen worden gehanteerd[9] en wanneer er een gebrek is aan voldoende en kwalitatieve stimulatie van vrouwen door leidinggevenden[10]. Dat het ontbreken van de uitvoering van een emancipatiebeleid en beloningsverschillen tussen mannen en vrouwen leidt tot een kleinere doorstroom vrouwen naar topfuncties, spreekt voor zich. Met het gebrek aan onvoldoende, kwalitatieve stimulatie wordt bedoelt dat wanneer ambities van vrouwen niet voldoende worden gestimuleerd, de ambitie van vrouwen daalt. Uit het onderzoek Ambitie kent geen tijd door Research voor Beleid in opdracht van TaskForce DeeltijdPlus blijkt dat wanneer je steun krijgt van je leidinggevende en bevestigd wordt in je eigen ambities, je sterkere ambities hebt.[11] Dus het gebrek aan stimulatie van ambities door leidinggevenden, kan leiden tot een kleinere doorstroom vrouwen naar de top, omdat ambities van vrouwen dan worden weggenomen. 4.1.4. Persoonlijkheid Op dit gebied komen de verschillen tussen mannen en vrouwen in persoonlijkheid naar boven. Lastig is om aan te geven wat op vooroordelen berust en welke persoonlijkheidsverschillen echt waar zijn, omdat dit ook weer van persoon tot persoon verschilt. Toch blijken sommige verschillen in karaktereigenschappen uit verschillende tests te komen en dus zal dit voor een groot deel van de mannen en vrouwen wel kloppen. Hieronder zullen een aantal verschillen in karaktereigenschappen behandelt worden om te laten zien dat ook dit invloed heeft op de doorstroom van vrouwen naar topfuncties. Vrouwen zijn minder onderhandelingvaardig. Dit wordt geconstateerd door verschillende onderzoeken. Zo ook in het artikel Wat houdt vrouwen tegen? op de website van intermediair[12] (2004): Ze hadden misschien iets andere functies, maar het ging wel om banen op hetzelfde niveau. Het bleek dus dat de mannen hun salaris gewoon beter hadden uitonderhandeld. Vrouwen zijn bang dat flink onderhandelen ten koste gaat van hun relatie met de leidinggevende. Mannen hebben daar geen last van, die willen betaald worden voor hun positie, zegt Bà ¼hrs. Sterker nog: mannen hebben waardering voor iemand die pittig kan onderhandelen. Ze zien het als een onderdeel van het spel. En daarmee raken we aan de kern van de vraag waarom zoveel vrouwen afhaken: de moeite die ze hebben met het politieke spel op kantoor. Dat vrouwen minder onderhandelingsvaardig zijn dan mannen, kan leiden tot minder vrouwen die doorstromen naar de top. Vrouwen zijn beter in minder zichtbare punten, zoals samenwerken en een goede relatie opbouwen met de tegenpartij. Mannen zijn meer gericht op het eindresultaat, vrouwen meer op de manier waarop dit eindresultaat wordt behaalt.[13] Ook blijkt uit een onderzoek van psycholoog De Pater[14], dat vrouwen wel ambitieus genoeg zijn, maar zich hier niet altijd naar gedragen. Vrouwen nemen liever niet te veel risico, waardoor ze uitdagingen vaak mijden, terwijl mannen ze juist opzoeken. Om hoger op te komen is het echter nodig om zo af en toe risicos te nemen en uitdagingen dus aan te nemen. 4.1.5. Loopbaan- en levensloopkeuzes. Het laatste soort oorzaak dat invloed heeft op het aantal vrouwen in topfuncties is de loopbaan- en levensloopkeuzes. De grootste twee oorzaken binnen dit hokje zijn dat er meer vrouwen dan mannen parttime werken en dat vooral vrouwen arbeid en zorg willen combineren.[15] De keuze om in deeltijd te gaan werken, heeft een grote invloed op het wel of niet doorstromen naar de top. Een topfuncties eist minimaal de uren van een fulltime baan en dus vallen deeltijdwerkende vrouwen af om door te groeien naar de top, tenzij zij hun arbeidspatroon zouden willen veranderen. Ditzelfde geldt voor vrouwen die werk en zorg willen combineren. 5. Quotum 5.1 Waarom zou de overheid een quotum voor het aantal vrouwen in topfuncties in willen stellen? Bij de

Principles Of Good Writing And Formatting English Language Essay

Principles Of Good Writing And Formatting English Language Essay The process of preparing financial statements may also required you to provide accompanying reports or recommendations. Below are some principles that should be followed when preparing this written communication. Principles of good writing and formatting Proper grammar and correct spelling are the underpinning elements of any written communication. Other writing and layout skills contribute significantly to the communication and acceptance of any document. Here are some principles that provide evidence of good writing. Principles of good writing Audience Always design with an audience in mind. Where possible, state up front what the reader profile is. Aim at a specific reader and assume that the reader is intelligent but uninformed. Purpose Before writing your document, determine the exact purpose of the report. Language Use language that is simple, concrete, and familiar. Structure When preparing explanatory notes follow the standard speakers approach First tell your readers what you are going to tell them, then tell it to them, and finally tell them what you told them Culturally appropriate communication According to the website of the Department of Families, Community services  [1]  , culturally appropriate communication means: Finding away to communicate effectively that also respects and accepts cultural differences. Communication is a two-way process, so all parties need to work together to achieve culturally appropriate communication. Its about discovering, recognising, understanding and working effectively within the influences of each others culture. Effective communication is an important component of any job. Effective communication ensures that ideas, instructions and information are shared in a way that ensures the organisation achieves its objectives. For communication to be effective it needs to be understood and interpreted by the person receiving the message in the same way that the sender intended. So, effective communication becomes a challenge when the person you are communicating with is from a different background, has different values and perhaps has a different language to your own. In these situations you need to deliver your communication in a culturally appropriate way if effective communication is to be achieved. Some important points to consider to ensure culturally appropriate communication are: Remember that you are communicating with individuals. Beware of the assumption that all people from a certain cultural share the same values and beliefs. All cultures are equal A different culture to your own does not mean a lesser one. While you are most comfortable with your own culture, this does not mean it is the the best or the only way people should behave. Speak clearly and concisely Sound words out properly rather than slowly, which can sound patronising. Shorten your sentences and convey one idea per sentence. Add visual support like charts, images and diagrams to your text or verbal communications. Check for understanding Ask the person to repeat your communication back to you to ensure they understood the message how you intended. Be aware of non-verbal communication Not all communication is verbal. Some studies report that up to two-thirds of the meaning of a message is interpreted by the non-verbal communication such as facial expressions, hand gestures, posture and tone of voice. Take care not to allow your non-verbal communication to be misinterpreted by people from by other cultures. Language for report writing Be precise: Use short sentences and be simple and direct. Avoid using excess words and cumbersome phrases. Express your meaning clearly and do not use clichà ©s, jargon or ambiguous terms. Be objective: Present data impartially and without bias. Present facts and avoid using emotive terms. Clearly distinguish opinion from assumptions. Be accurate: Ensure your report is free of spelling and grammatical errors. Proof read your work carefully before finalising and presenting it. Be impersonal: Avoid the use of personal terms like I, my and me. Organisational requirements for producing reports Your organisation may have templates or style guidelines that direct how documents are to be produced. This may include directions for use of company logos, headers and footers, page numbering and file naming protocols. You should ensure your report follows all necessary guidelines, contains all the relevant information and is presented professionally. Have a colleague check your work for details you may have missed. Communication and Interpersonal skills Interpersonal skills are a necessary component in the process of preparing financial statements. You must be able to effectively confirm the requirements for reporting in order to produce useable statements and recommendations. Some useful communication skills are outlined below: Third-personing This technique can be used to normalise a clients feelings. Example Many retirees are looking for ways to get a better cash flow option This technique allows the client to respond to the statement and talk about the statement if they choose. It also allows the client to correct advisors assumptions. To the Nth Degree This skill allows the client to define their own priorities and needs. You are concerned with many different financial issues. What concerns you most? This technique shows respect for the clients needs and allows the client to control the interviews direction. Offering Options When a client is struggling with a decision, an advisor can offer a range of options, which allows the client to choose which options might work for them. Paraphrasing Paraphrasing lets the client know that they have been heard and understood by the advisor. This technique uses different language to reinforce what the client has said. It also allows the client to give an advisor feedback if they have been misunderstood. Acknowledge/normalise Acknowledge or normalise a clients feelings to reassure them. This helps builds trust, openness and self-respect. Example Thats a pretty common reaction. Affirming Statements Genuine affirmation improves the clients sense of well-being and builds on client strengths and past successes. Examples: Thanks for your input today. It was very informative Things to avoid There are ways in which communication can be interrupted or blocked unintentionally by the listeners response. Some of these responses to avoid include arguing, lecturing, moralising, preaching, judging, withdrawing, distracting or ridicule  [2]  . Learning activity: Interpersonal skills Identify and describe three benefits that you think that a person charged with the responsibility of preparing financial statements would secure by possessing good interpersonal skills to deal with clients. 1. 2 3 Listening Become an active listener There are five key elements to this to help ensure you are really listening to what the person has to say: Pay attention Give the client your undivided attention and acknowledge the message. Recognise that what is not said also speaks loudly. Show that you are listening Use your own body language and gestures to convey your attention. Provide feedback Ask questions to clarify certain points. What do you mean when you sayà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦? Is this what you mean? Defer judgment. Allow the client to finish. Dont interrupt with counter-arguments. Respond appropriately. Be candid, open, and honest in your response  [3]  . Learning activity: Active listening Am I being an active listener when I Argue my point Yes/No Look around the room Yes/No I am honest in my response Yes/No My body is facing away from the other person Yes/No I ask them to clarify a point Yes/No Liaising When confirming reporting requirements, you will need to liaise effectively with relevant stakeholders. Gathering information, answering queries and resolving difficulties rely on good communication skills and your job will be made easier when you can deal with everyone efficiently and effectively. Most problems hindering project outcomes are tied back to communication difficulties. To make this liaising process easier, consider implementing the following; Firstly have a clear idea about what youre supposed to be doing. Clearly outline the terms and conditions under which youll be operating. Knowing who is responsible for what and how things are going to get done, makes later disagreements less likely. Some tax agents use a standardised contract to establish and manage this relationship. Secondly dont report to multiple people. Insist on one constant point of contact throughout the process. Requests for changes or updates should come from one person. This way there is less chance that youll end up chopping and changing as different people express their opinion. Thirdly, keep your client abreast of your progress on a regular basis. Maybe its a regular email just to let them know that you have everything under control. This will stop the client checking in on progress at times that may be inconvenient and disrupt your work flow. Learning activity: Client liaisons Identify different situations where you may need to liaise with a client when providing financial statement preparation services, and describe how this might be done. In particular, note what trigger points there are in the process that may require you to liaise or clarify information with a client. e.g. initial interview phone call to organise mutually acceptable time/date